Tibet Mystery
By way of a live webcast from Sarnath, India, on the eve of the new millennial year, this message from the Dalai Lama resonated through computer systems throughout the world. Sarnath, fittingly, was the site of the first sermon delivered by the Buddha, after attaining enlightenment in nearby Bodhgaya 2,500 years before. The message now, for the first day of 2000 C.E., was much the same:
Find peace of mind, cultivate a good heart, and be kinder to each other, if you want a happier future
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Hitler and the Himalayas: The SS Mission to Tibet 1938-39
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS A Teaching by Thrangu Rinpoche
Ritual Implements in Tibetan Buddhism: A Symbolic Appraisal
Tournament of Shadows : The Great Game: The Race for...
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
A Teaching by Thrangu RinpocheOne needs to understand that when the Buddha taught, he was not teaching as a great scholar who wanted to demonstrate a particular philosophical point of view or to teach for its own sake. His desire was to present the very essence of the deep and vast teachings of Buddhism, for that reason he gave teachings which suited the abilities of his disciples. All the teachings he gave, some long and some short, were a direct and appropriate response to the development of the disciples who came to listen to him. Of course, people have very different capacities and different levels of understanding. They also have very different wishes and desires to learn and understand the dharma. If the Buddha had taught only the very essence of his own understanding of those vast and far- reaching teachings, then apart from a small number of disciples who had great intelligence and diligence few people would have ever understood the Buddhist teachings. The Buddha taught whatever would enable a person develop so he or she could progress gradually towards the very deep and vast teachings. When we analyze all the Buddha's teachings, we see that they fall into three main approaches or vehicles.
The Buddha's teachings helped each student in a way appropriate for the level he or she was at. Because of that, one finds that on the relative level each student received some benefit from what Buddha taught. On the absolute level, one finds all of the Buddha's teachings have the same goal. When one analyzes the Buddha's teachings on the relative level, one finds that there are three levels. But, when one examines them from the absolute level, one sees there is only one level, or yana, because all beings are directed towards the same goal.
The Hinayana
Of the three yanas, the first is the hinayana. Hinayana literally means "lesser vehicle" but this term should in no way be a reproach or be construed to any way diminish the importance of the teachings. In fact, the teachings of the hinayana are very important because they suit the capacities and development of a great number of students. If it weren't for these teachings, which are particularly appropriate for those who have limited wisdom or diligence, many persons would never been able to travel the mahayana path. Without the hinayana teachings there would be no way for practitioners to progress in the dharma because they would have never entered the path. The path is similar to a staircase: the lower step is the lower step. This doesn't mean it is not important or should be ignored because without this lower step one can never reach the top of the stairs. One can never gain access to the upper stories of a building without that lower step. It is very necessary. It should be very clear that this term "lesser" vehicle is in no way a pejorative term. It just puts the path into a realistic context.
The fundamental teachings of the hinayana are the main subject matter of the first dharmachakra or turning of the wheel of dharma. These teachings were given mainly in India in the town of Varanasi which is now called Benares. The main subject matter of these teachings is "The Four Noble Truths."
The Four Noble Truths
If the Buddha had taught his disciples principally by demonstrating his miraculous abilities and various powers, it would not have been the best way to establish them on the path of liberation. The best way to bring them to that wisdom and liberation was to point out the very truth of things; to point out the way things really are. So this is what he did: He showed the truth through the four noble truths and the two truths (relative and absolute truth). By seeing the way things really are, the students learned how to eliminate their mistakes and their delusions. Eliminating ones mistakes and delusions automatically destroys the causes of ones suffering and hardships. This allows one to progressively reach the state of liberation and great wisdom. That is why the four noble truths and the two truths are the essence of the first teachings of the Buddha.
The First Noble Truth
The first noble truth is the full understanding of suffering. Of course, in an obvious way, people are aware of suffering and know when they have unpleasant sensations such as hunger, cold, or sickness and recognize these as things that one doesn't like. But the first noble truth includes awareness of all the ramifications of suffering because it encompasses the very nature and essence of suffering. This includes knowledge of the subtle and the obvious aspects of suffering. The obvious aspect of suffering is immediate pain or difficulty in the moment. Subtle suffering is more difficult to understand because it begins with happiness. But by its very nature this happiness must change because it cannot go on forever. Because it must change into suffering, then subtle suffering is the nonpermanence of pleasure. For example, when Thrangu Rinpoche went to Bhutan with His Holiness Karmapa, he was invited to the palace of the king of Bhutan. When he arrived there, the palace was magnificent, the kings chambers were beautiful, there were many servants who showed complete respect and obedience. But he and Karmapa found that even though there was so much external beauty, the king himself was suffering a great deal mentally and had many difficulties. The king himself said that he was quite relieved that His Holiness had come and emphasized how much the visit meant to him because of the various difficulties with which he had been troubled. This is the subtle aspect of suffering. One thinks that a particular situation will give one the most happiness one can ever imagine, but actually, within the situation, there is a tremendous amount of anguish. If one thinks of those who are really fortunate-- those gods or human beings with a very rich and healthy life--it seems as though they have nothing but happiness. It is hard to understand that the very root, the very fiber of what is taking place is suffering because the situation is subject to change.
What is happiness? By its very nature it can often mean that there will be suffering later on. There is no worldly happiness that lasts for a very long time. Worldly happiness includes an element of change, of built-in suffering. For that reason the first noble truth of the awareness of suffering refers not just to immediate suffering, but also to the subtle elements of suffering. The Buddha taught the truth of suffering because everything that takes place on a worldly level is a form of suffering.
If one is suffering but is not aware of it, one will never have the motivation to eliminate this suffering and will continue to suffer. When one is aware of suffering, one is able to overcome it. With the more subtle forms of suffering, if one is happy and becomes aware that the happiness automatically includes the seed of suffering, then one will be much less inclined to become involved in the attachment to this happiness. One will then think, "Oh, this seems to be happiness, but it has built-in suffering." Then one will want to dissociate from it. The first truth is that one should be aware of suffering. Once one has a very clear picture of the nature of suffering, one can really begin to avoid such suffering. Of course, everyone wants to avoid suffering and to emerge from suffering, but to accomplish this one needs to be absolutely clear about its nature.
When one becomes aware that the nature of day-to-day existence is suffering, one doesn't have to be miserable with the thought suffering will always be present. Suffering doesn't go on forever because the Buddha entered the world, gave teachings, and demonstrated clearly what suffering is. He also taught the means by which suffering can be ended and described the state beyond suffering which is liberation. One does not have to endure suffering and can, in fact, be happy. Even though one can not immediately emerge from suffering by practicing the Buddha's teachings, one can gradually eliminate suffering in this way, and move towards eventual liberation. This fact in itself can make one happy, even before one has actually completely emerged from suffering. Applying of the Buddha's teachings, one can both be happy in the relative phase of ones progress and then at the end one will gain wisdom and liberation and be happy in the ultimate sense, as well.
The first noble truth makes it clear that there is suffering. Once one knows what suffering is, one must eliminate that suffering. It is not a question of eliminating the suffering itself, but of eliminating the causes of suffering. Once one removes the causes of suffering, then automatically the effect, which is suffering, is no longer present. This is why, in order to eliminate this suffering, one becomes aware of the second noble truth, the truth of universal origination.
The Second Noble Truth
The truth of universal origination is an English translation of the name Buddha himself gave to this noble truth. It means "that which is the cause or origin of absolutely everything." The truth of universal origination indicates that the root cause of suffering is karma and the kleshas. Karma is a Sanskrit word which means "activity" and klesha in Sanskrit means "mental defilement" or "mental poison." If one does not understand the Buddha's teachings, one would most likely attribute all happiness and suffering to some external cause. One might think that happiness and suffering come from the environment, or from the gods, and that everything that happens originates in some source outside of ones control. If one believes this, then it is extremely hard, if not impossible, to eliminate suffering and its causes. On the other hand, when one realizes that the experience of suffering is a product of what one has done, that is, a result of ones karma, eliminating suffering becomes possible. Once one is aware of how suffering takes place, then one can begin to remove the causes of suffering. First one must realize that what one experiences is not dependent on external forces, but on what one has done previously. This is the understanding of karma. Karma produces suffering and is driven by the defilements. The term "defilement" refers mainly to ones negative motivation and negative thoughts, which produce negative actions.
The Third Noble Truth
The third noble truth is the cessation of suffering through which it is explained that the causes of karma and the defilements can be removed. We have control over suffering because karma and the defilements take place within us--we create them, we experience them. For that reason we don't need to depend on anyone else to remove the cause of suffering. The truth of universal origination means that if we do unvirtuous actions, we are creating suffering. It also means if we abandon unvirtuous actions, we remove the possibility of experiencing suffering in the future. What we experience is entirely in our hands. Therefore the Buddha has said that we should give up the causes of karma and the defilements. Virtuous actions result in the external state of happiness and unvirtuous actions result in suffering. This idea is not particularly easy to grasp because one cannot see the whole process take place from beginning to end.
There are three kinds of actions: mental, verbal, and physical. These are subdivided into virtuous and unvirtuous physical actions, virtuous and unvirtuous verbal actions, and virtuous and unvirtuous mental actions. If one abandons these three types of unvirtuous actions, then ones actions become automatically virtuous.
There are three unvirtuous physical actions: the harming of life, sexual misconduct, and stealing. The results of these three unvirtuous actions can be observed immediately. For example, when there is a virtuous relationship between a man and woman who care about each other, protect each other, and have a great deal of love and affection for each other. They will be happy because they look after each other. Their wealth will usually increase and if they have children, their love and care will bring mutual love in the family. In the ordinary sense, happiness develops out of this deep commitment and bond they have promised to keep. Whereas, when there is an absence of commitment, there is also little care or love and sexual misconduct arises. This is not the ground out of which love arises, or upon which a nice home can be built in which children can develop happiness. One can readily see that from the lack of commitment to sexual fidelity, many kinds of difficulties will arise.
One can also see the immediate consequences of other unvirtuous physical actions. One can see that those who steal have difficulties and suffer; those who don't steal experience happiness and have a good state of mind. Likewise, those who kill create many problems and unhappiness for themselves while those who support life are happy.
The same applies to ones speech, although it is not so obvious. But on closer examination, one can also see how happiness develops out of virtuous speech and unhappiness from unvirtuous kinds of speech. At first lying may seem to be useful because one might think that one can deceive others through lies and gain some advantage. But Sakya Pandita said that this is not true. If one lies to ones enemies or persons one doesn't get along with, very well, because they are ones enemies they are not going to take notice of what one is saying anyway. It will be quite hard to deceive them. If they are ones friends, one might be able to deceive them at first by telling a lie. But after the first time, they wont trust you any more and may think that you have been a hypocrite. Lying doesn't really work. Then if one looks at the opposite, a person who takes pains to speak the truth will develop a reputation of being a truthful person who can be relied on and out of this trust, many good things will emerge.
Once we have considered the example of the consequences of lying, we can think of similar consequences relating to other kinds of damaging speech: slander, and coarse, aggressive, and useless speech. Except for the immediate and the short-termed consequences virtuous speech produces happiness and unvirtuous speech produces suffering.
When we say useless speech, we mean speech that is really useless, not just conversational. So, if we have a good mind and want someone to relax and be happy, even though the words may not be of great meaning, then its useful speech based on the idea of benefit and goodness. When we say "useless speech," we mean chatter for no reason at all. Worse than that is "chatter rooted in the defilements" when one is saying bad things about other people because of dislike or is jealous of them or one sets people against each other. One just gossips about the character of people. That is really useless speech. Besides being useless, this very often causes trouble because it sets people against each other and causes bad feelings.
The same applies with "harmful speech." If there is really a loving and beneficial reason for talking, for example, scolding a child when the child is doing something dangerous or scolding a child for not studying in school, that is not harmful speech because it is devoid of the defilements, being a skillful way of helping someone. If there is that really genuine, beneficial attitude and love behind what one says, it is not harmful speech. But if speech were related to the defilements such as aggression or jealousy, then it is harmful speech and is something to give up.
We can go on to examine the various states of mind and see that a virtuous mind produces happiness and unvirtuous states of mind create unhappiness. For instance, strong aggression will cause us to lose our friends. Because of our aggressiveness, our enemies will become even worse enemies and the situation will become inflamed. If we are aggressive and hurt others and they have friends, then eventually friends will also become enemies. On the other hand, if we wish to benefit others, goodness will come out of it through the power of caring for our loved ones and then through wishing to help them develop goodness. Through this they will become close and helpful friends. Through the power of our love and care, our enemies and the people one doesn't get along with will improve their behavior and maybe those enemies will eventually become friends. If we have companions and wish to benefit others, we can end up with very good friends and all the benefits which that brings. In this way we can see how cause and effect operate, how a virtuous mind brings about happiness and how a non-virtuous mind brings about suffering and problems.
There are two main aspects of karma: one related to experience and one related to conditioning. The experience of karma has already been discussed in relation. Through unvirtuous physical actions one will experience problems and unhappiness. Likewise, through unvirtuous speech, such as lying, one experiences unhappiness and sorrow. Through an unvirtuous state of mind, one experiences unhappiness. This was demonstrated by the example of an aggressive attitude. All of this is related to the understanding that any unvirtuous activity produces unpleasantness or unhappiness.
The second aspect of karma relates to conditioning. By acting unvirtuously with ones body, speech, or mind one habituates oneself to a certain style of behavior. Unvirtuous physical or verbal behaviors add to the habit of doing things. For example, each time we kill, we are conditioned to kill again. If we lie, that increases the habit of lying. An aggressive mind conditions our state of mind so we become more aggressive. In later lives, then, that conditioning will emerge so that we will be reborn with a great tendency to kill, to lie, to engage in sexual misconduct, and so on. These are two aspects to karma. One is the direct consequence of an act and the other is the conditioning that creates a tendency to engage in behavior of that kind. Through these two aspects karma produces all happiness and suffering in life.
Even though we may recognize that unvirtuous karma gives rise to suffering and virtuous karma gives rise to happiness, it is hard for us to give up unvirtuous actions and practice virtuous actions because the defilements exercise a powerful influence on us. We realize that suffering is caused by unvirtuous karma but we cannot give up the karma itself. We need to give up the defilements because they are the root of unvirtuous actions. To give up the defilements means to give up non-virtuous actions of body (such as killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct), the unvirtuous actions of speech (such as lying, slander and harmful and useless speech), and the unvirtuous aspects of mind (such as aggressive, covetous, or ignorant mind). Just wanting to give up the defilements does not remove them. However, the Buddha in his great kindness and wisdom has given us a very skillful way to eliminate the very root of all the defilements through the examination of the belief in the existence of ego or self.
We cannot just understand this belief in a self easily because it is very deep-rooted. First of all, we have to search for this self that we believe in and through this search we can discover that the self does not exist. Then we will be able to gradually to eliminate the belief in a self. When this is done, the defilements are also eliminated because with the elimination of a belief in self unvirtuous karma is also eliminated.
This belief in a self is a mistaken perception, its an illusion. For example, if one has a flower and were to interrogate one hundred people about it, they would all come to the same conclusion that it is indeed a flower. So one could be pretty sure that it is a flower. But, if one asked a person "Is this me?," he would say, "No, its you." A second person would say, "Its you." One would end up with one hundred persons who say this is "you" and only oneself would consider it as "me." So statistically ones self is on very wobbly ground.
We also tend to think of "me" as one thing, as a unity. When we examine what we think of as ourselves, we find it is made up of many different components: the various parts of the body, the different organs, and the different elements. There are so many of them, yet we have this feeling of a one thing which is "me." When we examine any of those components and try to find something that is the essence of self, the self cannot be found in any of these bits and pieces. By contemplating this and working through it very thoroughly, we begin to see how this "I" is really an incorrect perception.
Once we have eliminated this wrong way of thinking, the idea of an "I" becomes easy to get rid of. So, all of the desire rooted in thinking, "I must be made happy" can be eliminated as well as all the aversion rooted in the idea of "this difficulty must be eliminated." Through the elimination of the idea of "I" we can annihilate the defilements. Once the defilements are gone, then unvirtuous karma, which is rooted in the defilements, can go. Once the unvirtuous karma is gone, suffering will no longer take place. This is why Buddha says that the root of suffering needs to be abandoned.
The first two noble truths may be summed up with two statements:
One should be aware of and know what suffering is. One should give up the universal origination of suffering.
To summarize, once one recognizes what suffering really is, then one begins by removing its causes. One stops doing unvirtuous actions which create suffering. To stop these unvirtuous activities, one digs out their root which is the defilements and the various unhealthy attitudes. To eradicate the defilements one needs to remove their heart, which is this belief in a self. If one does that, then one will eventually come to realize the wisdom of non-self. Through understanding the absence of a self, one no longer creates the defilements and bad actions and brings an end to that whole process. This is highly possible to reach; therefore there is the third noble truth of cessation.
The very essence and nature of cessation is peace. Sometimes people think of Buddhahood in terms of brilliant insights or something very fantastic. In fact, the peace one obtains from the cessation of everything unhealthy is the deepest happiness, bliss, and well-being. Its very nature is lasting in contrast to worldly happiness which is exciting for a time, but then changes. In contrast, this ultimate liberation and omniscience is a definitive release from the defilements which are the cause of suffering. Their cessation is the most deeply moving peace. Within that peace all the powers of liberation and wisdom are developed. It is a very definitive release from both suffering and its result and four main qualities of this truth of cessation. First, it is the cessation of suffering. Second, it is peace. Third, it is the deepest liberation and wisdom. Fourth, it is a very definitive release. Cessation is a product of practicing the path shown to us by the Most Perfect One, the Lord Buddha. The actual nature of that path is the topic of the fourth noble truth, which is called the truth of the path because it describes the path that leads to liberation.
The Fourth Noble Truth
The truth of the path is called "the truth of the path" because a path leads one to the ultimate goal. One does this step by step, stage by stage, progressively completing ones journey. The main stages of Buddhism are called "the five paths" because by progressively traversing them one eventually reaches ones destination which is cessation. This path of the Buddha can be analyzed through its five main stages which are called the five paths (Skt. marga). The names of the five paths are the stage of accumulation, the stage of junction, the stage of insight, the stage of cultivation, and the final stage of nonstudy. Properly speaking, the first four of these are the path with the fifth one being the effect.
The first path is called the "path of accumulation" because gathering or accumulating a great wealth of many things. This is the stage in which one tries to gather all the positive factors which enable one to progress. One tries to cultivate diligence, the good qualities, and the wisdom which penetrates more deeply into the meaning of things. One commits oneself to accumulate all the various positive aspects of practice. One gathers the positive elements into ones being while at the same time working on many different ways to remove all the unwanted elements from ones life. One also applies various techniques to eliminate the various blockages and obstacles which are holding one back. This is called the stage of accumulation because one engages in this manifold activity and gathers all of these new things into ones life.
In ordinary life we are caught up in the level of worldliness. Even though we don't want to be, we are still operating on a level of conditioned existence (Skt. samsara) because we are still under the influence of the defilements. They have a very strong habitual grip on our existence. We need to get rid of these defilements in order to find our way out of samsara. Of course, we want to find this happiness and peace and we know it is possible. But even with the strongest will in the world, we cannot do it overnight. It is like trying to dye a large cloth in that one needs to bring many different elements together to change the color.
So, first of all, in order to gain the good qualities, we need to work on creating all the different conditions which will make those qualities emerge. To develop the various insights of meditation and real wisdom, we need to develop great faith and confidence in the validity and usefulness of that wisdom. Once we are convinced of its value, we need to change our habits so that we have the diligence to do all the things necessary to make insight and wisdom emerge. Therefore, there are many factors and conditions we must generate within our life that will bring about our happiness.
To remove all the unwholesome factors binding us in samsara, we must uproot belief in a self, eliminate the various defilements which are hindering us, and bring together the many different conditions that make this transformation and purification possible. We talk about accumulation because we are assembling all the different conditions that make this transformation possible. We won't be able to progress in a significant manner until we have gathered all these causes and conditions in a proper and completely perfect way within ourselves. For that reason the purpose of this stage of accumulation is to complete all the necessary conditions by gathering them into our existence.
Eventually, because of the complete gathering of favorable conditions, we will reach the third path which is the "path of insight." This is the stage during which insight into the way things actually are is developed which is beyond the veil of delusion. Linking the path of accumulation and the path of insight is the second path of junction. Here our inner realization, the very way we can perceive things, begins to link up with the truth of the actual nature of phenomena because we are gathering all the favorable circumstances that will eventually lead us to the actual insight itself. When we attain insight into the way things really are and this insight develops beyond the level of delusion and mistaken views, we realize that there is no self. Once there is no longer a belief in self, there are no longer any root defilements of attachment, aggression, or mental darkness associated with the idea of self. Once there are no longer any defilements, one does nothing unvirtuous and has no more suffering.
Now, it is true that once we have that insight, all suffering is immediately removed, but in another way, that is not true. This is because the delusion of a self is a habit which has been built up for such a long time and is very, very hard to remove. For example, when we believe in the self and we hit our finger with a hammer, it hurts. Even when we have realized that an unchanging self is just a delusion fabricated by our minds, still when we hit our finger with a hammer it hurts. We still have the feeling, "I am suffering" because there is an enduring built-up association of "I" with the flesh of our body. Removal of that long established conditioning of self is carried out through a long process of accustomization to the truth of non-self. This is the fourth stage of the cultivation of insight.
The fourth stage is called the path of cultivation (gom ki lam in Tibetan). The word gom is usually translated as "meditation" but actually means "to get used to something" or "to accustom oneself." This is why it is translated here as "the path of cultivation," while other texts translate it as "the path of meditation." But this stage is the idea of getting used to the insight into the nature of things. Through becoming more and more familiar with the truth of things, we can remove the very fine traces of defilements and subconscious conditioning that still exist. Through gradual working on these the goal of Buddhahood will be attained.
Through the cultivation of insight we eventually reach the goal of the fifth path which is called "the path of no more study." Through cultivation we remove even the most subtle causes of suffering. Once this is completed we have reached the highest state and there are no more new paths to go along making this "the path of no more study" or "the path of no more practice."
There are two Tibetan words which are pronounced "gom" but spelled differently. There is sgom which means "meditation" and khom which means "to habituate." In the Buddhist view the ordinary reality that we see is actually a delusion. Only with great spiritual attainment can we then see through this delusion and see "things as they really are" (Tib. nga lu).
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Home Page of the Venerable Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche
If you are interested in Tibet, this is a good book to read:
Book Description
From the romantic conflicts of the Victorian Great Game to the Russian invasion of Afghanistan, Tournament of Shadows traces the struggle for control of Central Asia and Tibet from the 1830s to the present.The original Great Game (1800-1917), the clandestine struggle between Russia and Britain for mastery of Central Asia, has long been regarded as one of the greatest geopolitical conflicts in history. The prize, control of the vast Eurasian heartland, was believed by some to be key to world dominion. Teeming with improbable drama and exaggerated tensions, the conflict featured soldiers, mystics, archeologists, and spies, among them some of history's most colorful characters.
While the original Great Game ended with the Russian Revolution, the geopolitical struggles in Central Asia continue to the present day. Beginning with the soldiers and propagandists of the Victorian era, Tournament of Shadows chronicles nearly two centuries of conflict in the Eurasian heartland, conflict that has spawned wars in Afghanistan, the invasion of Tibet, and economic scrambles for control of Caspian oil. Karl E. Meyer, formerly of the New York Times, and his wife, Shareen Blair Brysac, formerly of CBS News, have created a vivid narrative that brings to life the engaging personalities in this colorful conflict:
- Russia's greatest explorer, Nicholas Przhevalsky, who died trying to shoot his way to Lhasa
- Nicholas Roerich, the Russian artist and mystic who searched for fabled Shambhala under the patronage of Henry Wallace, the American Secretary of Agriculture
- Philadelphia socialite Brooke Dolan, like a figure out of Hemingway, who reached Lhasa as an OSS operative
- SS Captain Ernst Schäfer, who led an expedition to Tibet in the late 1930s in an attempt to confirm Nazi racial theories
- William Rockhill, the first American to befriend and advise a Dalai Lama
- Sarat Chandra Das, the Bengali explorer who went to Lhasa in the secret service of the Raj.Revealing a wealth of new material that has never before been published, Meyer and Brysac have written a sweeping history of a riveting tournament, a two-century joust with political and economic implications that remain as topical today as this morning's newspaper.
"The world's oldest established imperial rivalry had its start during the Napoleonic age when British agents came upon the tracks of Russian rivals in snowbound Tibet, and then again in mythic Bokhara, deep in Central Asia. Was the Tsar planning to invade India, or even worse, was Russia bent on global dominion? To foil these real or imagined schemes, the British twice invaded Afghanistan, and in 1904 dispatched an army to Lhasa to check Tsarist designs on Tibet."--BOOK JACKET. "This was classic Great Game, which took on fresh life after the Russian Revolution and as Americans joined in, and which continues today in the covert struggle for mastery of the Caspian Sea and its oil riches. The whole story is here retold in a flowing narrative crammed with revealing detail, drawing on newly opened archives and recent research, a canvas filled with memorable men and women, taking the reader over Himalayan passes and through the world's deadliest deserts."--BOOK JACKET.
About the Author
Karl E. Meyer, a Princeton Ph.D., was London bureau chief for the Washington Post before joining the editorial board of the New York Times. Shareen Blair Brysac has been a prize-winning producer of prime-time documentaries for CBS News. She is currently contributing editor of Archaeology Magazine.The publisher, Counterpoint Press , February 28, 2000
An intervew with Karl E. Meyer and Shareen Brysac
Q. Let's start with the title. Explain please.Our book's starting point is the century-long struggle between Russia and Britain for mastery of Central Asia, which we define as also including Afghanistan and Tibet. Count Nesselrode, a Tsarist Foreign Minister, used the wonderful phrase "tournament of shadows" to describe the competition later immortalized by Rudyard Kipling as "the Great Game." Put simply, the British feared Russia wanted to stir revolt within India and dominate all Asia, which some strategists saw as the key to global dominion - it was a Victorian dress rehearsal for our own Cold War.
Q. So we're really dealing with things long past.
Not at all. The contest continues with different players, in the very same regions and for higher stakes than ever. In Kipling's Kim, which was published in 1901, an Indian character accurately remarked that the Great Game won't end until everybody is dead. Today's Game is about tapping the vast reserves of Caspian oil and gas, the lucrative and baleful traffic in heroin, the blood feuds between various creeds and clans, the oppression of women in Afghanistan and of Buddhism in Tibet - all this plus Russia, India, China, Pakistan, Iran, Turkey and America vying for a toehold on very slippery slopes. The Caspian, the Caucasus and the Himalayas seem destined in the coming century to be what the Middle East has been to our age - a devil's broth.
Q. Still, aren't a lot of books already out there. Is there anything new to say?
There are indeed plenty of books, but nearly all were written before the collapse of Communism, the opening of long-sealed archives. Some of the best were written by Britons, with an inescapable tilt to the British view. We have put Americans on our canvas - the fighting Quaker Josiah Harlan, who commanded an Afghan army; the journalist MacGahan, who helped ignite the Russo-Turkish War; and William McGovern, the forgotten first American to reach Lhasa. We have drawn on archives and benefited from the spadework of an unsung brigade of scholars, American, British, Russian, Indian and Pakistani. And we have tried to bring to life a striking procession of characters in a narrative that will carry the reader along.
Q. Sounds daunting. Where did you start?
It was daunting. We spent a year in Berlin, 1994-1995, simply reading and talking with people who knew or lived in Asia. Karl was a fellow at Berlin's Institute for Advanced Studies, and then became a Reuter Fellow at Oxford in 1997-1998. We combed through British libraries, especially the India Office records, the National Archives in Washington and the FDR Library at Hyde Park. The Internet was an essential tool, giving us ready access to scholars in Russia, Germany, Sweden as well as the US. And we traveled. Our book grew out of an extended trip to India, Pakistan and Nepal, and we returned to trace the old Silk Road by van, bus and train from Islamabad through the Pamirs to Xian, the ancient capital of China.
Q. What proved hardest?
Seeing our world from below, getting the view of women and of ordinary people of whatever race in lesser ranks who are commonly written out of history. The records are very spotty - for example, we could not find a convincing account of two Afghan wars as seen by Afghans. Only recently have Tibetans been able to speak for themselves through memoirs and histories accessible to non-Tibetans. And paradoxically, despite all the news stories, movies and books, Tibet is still mostly a blank spot in the average American's mind, a Shangri-la whose Western discoverer was Heinrich Harrer as played by Brad Pitt. In fact at least thirty Americans and more than a hundred Britons preceded Harrer.
Q, And women?
The contest was very much a Boy's Own game, even when Victoria was on the throne. But spouses, sisters and daughters played a vital supporting role, and we have foraged letters and diaries to reveal events through their eyes. We have the tart and clever correspondence of Emily Eden, sister of Lord Auckland, the Governor-General of India who launched the disastrous First Afghan War. We try to tell the story of the Rani of Jhansi, a martyred heroine in India, where she lives in ballads and bronze, but little known elsewhere. And we have the Henry Jamesian presence of Lord Curzon's bride, formerly Mary Leiter of Chicago, who as Vicereine of India attained the most splendid position that any American, male or female, held in the British Empire.
Q. Do you have favorite characters?
Absolutely. Those Russian agents of mystical influence, Madame Blavatsky and the artist Nicholas Roerich, who baffled intelligence services on three continents. And Brooke Dolan, a character out of Hemingway and Fitzgerald, who explored the Tibetan borderlands and who as an OSS officer turned up in Lhasa with a letter from FDR to the Fourteenth (present) Dalai Lama. And Dorzhiev, the Buddhist monk, who tried and failed to win statehood for Tibet. Or the American diplomat William Rockhill, who twice laid siege to the mysteries of Tibet and became the first Westerner to befriend and advise a Dalai Lama. Q. Were there surprises in the research?
We were struck by the crucial role of maps and mapmakers, and of imperial geographical societies, all working closely with general staffs. Filling in the "blank spaces" on the maps of Asia, determining the sources of its fabled rivers, charting the world's highest mountains and deadliest deserts, unearthing the ruins of ancient Silk Road cities - these involved adventures as gripping as the exploration of the polar regions. Yet most of us know hardly anything about such outsize figures as Moorcroft and Koslov, Sarat Chandra Das and Sir Aurel Stein, Sven Hedin and Przhevalsky .
Q. As husband-and-wife working together, how did you decide who wrote what?
We divided up the chapters, read each others prose, sometimes provoking cries of pain and protest, yet the book got finished and the marriage survived. We had two desktop computers, two laptops, and a pleasant office in Weston. Connecticut, where Karl's parents bought a home in 1940. Our longest-running argument was over the spelling of Tsar, which Karl (and The New York Times) render as Czar. Shareen, and Tsar, prevailed.
Q. Did you have any literary models in mind?
Yes, we're great admirers of Alan Moorhead-his Blue and White Nile books. We wanted to do for Central Asia, Tibet and Afghanistan what he did for Africa-combine an important history with a vivid narrative style. We hope we succeeded in writing a reader-friendly book, accessible to anybody curious about a fascinating region.
Hitler and the Himalayas
The SS Mission to Tibet 1938-39
ALEX McKAY
photo courtesy Alex McKayOf all the exotic images that the West has ever projected onto Tibet, that of the Nazi expedition, and its search for the pure remnants of the Aryan race, remains the most bizarre.
On the nineteenth of January, 1939, five members of the Waffen-SS, Heinrich Himmler's feared Nazi shock troops, passed through the ancient, arched gateway that led into the sacred city of Lhasa. Like many Europeans, they carried with them idealized and unrealistic views of Tibet, projecting, as Orville Schell remarks in his book Virtual Tibet, "a fabulous skein of fantasy around this distant, unknown land." The projections of the Nazi expedition, however, did not include the now familiar search for Shangri-La, the hidden land in which a uniquely perfect and peaceful social system held a blueprint to counter the transgressions that plague the rest of humankind. Rather, the perfection sought by the Nazis was an idea of racial perfection that would justify their views on world history and German supremacy.
What brings about this odd juxtaposition of Tibetan lamas and SS officers on the eve of World War II is a strange story of secret societies, occultism, racial pseudo-science, and political intrigue. They were, in fact, on a diplomatic and quasi-scientific mission to establish relations between Nazi Germany and Tibet and to search for lost remnants of an imagined Aryan race hidden somewhere on the Tibetan plateau. As such, they were a far-flung expression of Hitler's most paranoid and bizarre theories on ethnicity and domination. And while the Tibetans were completely unaware of Hitler's racist agenda, the 1939 mission to Tibet remains a cautionary tale about how foreign ideas, symbols, and terminology can be horribly misused. Some Nazi militarists imagined Tibet as a potential base for attacking British India, and hoped that this mission would lead to some form of alliance with the Tibetans. In that they were partly successful. The mission was received by the Reting Regent (who had led Tibet since the death of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama in 1933), and it did succeed in persuading the Regent to correspond with Adolf Hitler. But the Germans were also interested in Tibet for another reason. Nazi leaders such as Heinrich Himmler believed that Tibet might harbor the last of the original Aryan tribes, the legendary forefathers of the German race, whose leaders possessed supernatural powers that the Nazis could use to conquer the world.
This was the age of European expansion, and numerous theories provided ideological justification for imperialism and colonialism. In Germany the idea of an Aryan or "master" race found resonance with rabid nationalism, the idea of the German superman distilled from the philosophy of friedrich Nietzsche, and Wagner's operatic celebrations of Nordic sagas and Teutonic mythology. Long before the 1939 mission to Tibet, the Nazis had borrowed Asian symbols and language and used them for their own ends. A number of prominent articles of Nazi rhetoric and symbolism originated in the language and religions of Asia. The term "Aryan", for example, comes from the Sanskrit word arya, meaning noble. In the Vedas, the most ancient Hindu scriptures, the term describes a race of light-skinned people from Central Asia who conquered and subjugated the darker-skinned (or Dravidian) peoples of the Indian subcontinent. Linguistic evidence does support the multidirectional migration of a central Asian people, now referred to as Indo-Europeans, into much of India and Europe at some point between 2000 and 1500 B.C.E., although it is unclear whether these Indo-Europeans were identical with the Aryans of the Vedas.
photo courtesy Alex McKay
So much for responsible scholarship. In the hands of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century European jingoists and occultists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau, these ideas about Indo-Europeans and light-skinned Aryans were transformed into a twisted myth of Nordic and later exclusively German racial superiority. The German identification with the Indo-Europeans and Aryans of the second millennium B.C.E. gave historical precedence to Germany's imperial "place in the sun" and the idea that ethnic Germans were racially entitled to conquest and mastery. It also aided in fomenting anti-Semitism and xenophobia, as Jews, Gypsies, and other minorities did not share in the Aryan German's perceived heritage as members of a dominant race. Ideas about an Aryan or master race began to appear in the popular media in the late nineteenth century. In the 1890s, E. B. Lytton, a Rosicrucian, wrote a best-selling novel around the idea of a cosmic energy (particularly strong in the female sex), which he called "Vril." Later he wrote of a Vril society, consisting of a race of super-beings that would emerge from their underground hiding-places to rule the world. His fantasies coincided with a great interest in the occult, particularly among the upper classes, with numerous secret societies founded to propagate these ideas. They ranged from those devoted to the Holy Grail to those who followed the sex and drugs mysticism of Alastair Crowley, and many seem to have had a vague affinity for Buddhist and Hindu beliefs.
Members of the German SS expedition.
Inner circle, left to right: Krause, Wienert, Beger, Geer, Schaefer.
photo courtesy Alex McKay
General Haushofer, a follower of Gurdjieff and later one of Hitler's main patrons, founded one such society. Its aim was to explore the origins of the Aryan race, and Haushofer named it the Vril Society, after Lytton's fictional creation. Its members practiced meditation to awaken the powers of Vril, the feminine cosmic energy. The Vril Society claimed to have links to Tibetan masters, apparently drawing on the ideas of Madame Blavatsky, the Theosophist who claimed to be in telepathic contact with spiritual masters in Tibet. In Germany, this blend of ancient myths and nineteenth-century scientific theories began to evolve into a belief that the Germans were the purest manifestation of the inherently superior Aryan race, whose destiny was to rule the world. These ideas were given scientific weight by ill-founded theories of eugenics and racist ethnography. Around 1919, the Vril Society gave way to the Thule Society (Thule Gesellschaft), which was founded in Munich by Baron Rudolf von Sebottendorf, a follower of Blavatsky. The Thule Society drew on the traditions of various orders such as the Jesuits, the Knights Templar, the Order of the Golden Dawn, and the Sufis. It promoted the myth of Thule, a legendary island in the frozen northlands that had been the home of a master race, the original Aryans. As in the legend of Atlantis (with which it is sometimes identified), the inhabitants of Thule were forced to flee from some catastrophe that destroyed their world. But the survivors had retained their magical powers and were hidden from the world, perhaps in secret tunnels in Tibet, where they might be contacted and subsequently bestow their powers on their Aryan descendants.
Such ideas might have remained harmless, but the Thule Society added a strong right-wing, anti-Semitic political ideology to the Vril Society mythology. They formed an active opposition to the local Socialist government in Munich and engaged in street battles and political assassinations. As their symbol, along with the dagger and the oak leaves, they adopted the swastika, which had been used by earlier German neo-pagan groups. The appeal of the swastika symbol to the Thule Society seems to have been largely in its dramatic strength rather than its cultural or mystical significance. They believed it was an original Aryan symbol, although it was actually used by numerous unconnected cultures throughout history. Beyond the adoption of the swastika, it is difficult to judge the extent to which either Tibet or Buddhism played a part in Thule Society ideology Vril Society founder General Haushofer, who remained active in the Thule Society, had been a German military attache in Japan. There he may have acquired some knowledge of Zen Buddhism, which was then the dominant faith among the Japanese military. Other Thule Society members, however, could only have read early German studies of Buddhism, and those studies tended to construct the idea of a pure, original Buddhism that had been lost, and a degenerate Buddhism that survived, much polluted by primitive local beliefs. It seems that Buddhism was little more than a poorly understood and exotic element in the Society's loose collection of beliefs, and had little real influence on the Thule ideology. But Tibet occupied a much stronger position in their mythology, being imagined as the likely home of the survivors of the mythic Thule race.
Here an SS anthropologist measures a Tibetan woman's head.
Some German scientists believed that Aryan features were reflected in
the dimensions of the skull.
©Transmit Films GMBH
The importance of the Thule Society can be seen from the fact that its members included Nazi leaders Rudolf Hess (Hitler's deputy), Heinrich Himmler, and almost certainly Hitler himself. But while Hitler was at least nominally a Catholic, Himmler enthusiastically embraced the aims and beliefs of the Thule Society. He adopted a range of neo-pagan ideas and believed himself to be a reincarnation of a tenth-century Germanic king. Himmler seems to have been strongly attracted to the possibility that Tibet might prove to be the refuge of the original Aryans and their superhuman powers. By the time Hitler wrote Mein Kampf in the 1920s, the myth of the Aryan race was fully developed. In Chapter XI, "Race and People," he expressed concern over what he perceived as the mixing of pure Aryan blood with that of inferior peoples. In his view, the pure Aryan Germanic races had been corrupted by prolonged contact with Jewish people. He lamented that northern Europe had been "Judaized" and that the German's originally pure blood had been tainted by prolonged contact with Jewish people, who, he claimed, lie "in wait for hours on end, satanically glaring at and spying on the unsuspicious girl whom he plans to seduce, adulterating her blood and removing her from the bosom of her people." For Hitler, the only solution to this mingling of Aryan and Jewish blood was for the tainted Germans to find the wellsprings of Aryan blood. It may happen that in the course of history such a people will come into contact a second time, and even oftener, with the original founders of their culture and may not even remember that distant association. A new cultural wave flows in and lasts until the blood of its standard-bearers becomes once again adulterated by intermixture with the originally conquered race. In the search for "contact a second time" with the Aryans, Tibet-long isolated, mysterious, and remote-seemed a likely candidateThis Article was taken from : tricicle.com , The Buddhist Review
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Article of the Month - June 2001
Ritual Implements in Tibetan Buddhism: A Symbolic Appraisal
Rites and rituals are an essential part of Tibetan religion and reflect its practical side. Not restricted to temples alone, they are performed in a variety of places and circumstances, for a myriad of purposes. Daily ceremonies are conducted in temples, although they are perhaps not so elaborate as those that take place in Hindu temples in India and Nepal. Throughout the year, too, special rituals are performed to propitiate deities, to precipitate rain, to avert hailstorms, diseases, and death, to ensure good harvests, to exorcise demons and evil spirits, and of course to destroy the passions of the mind and, ultimately, the ego. All these practices-whether occult, magical, or shamanistic, require various implements which are as important as the images of the deities in whose service they are employed. Each such object is pregnant with symbolic meaning and is frequently imbued with magical power and potency. Many of these ritual implements also occur as hand-held attributes of various important Buddhist deities. Many of these weapons and implements have their origins in the wrathful arena of the battlefield and the funerary realm of the cremation grounds. As primal images of destruction, slaughter, sacrifice, and necromancy, these weapons were wrested from the hands of evil and turned-as symbols-against the ultimate root of evil, the self-cherishing ego. In the hands of wrathful and semi-wrathful deities, protective deities, the siddhas and the dakinis, these implements became pure symbols, weapons of transformation, and an expression of the deities' wrathful compassion, which mercilessly destroys the manifold illusions of the inflated human ego. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/paintings/ZE58 (Size 83 kb) Some of the important ritual implements are: 1). The Vajra or Thunderbolt, also known in Tibetan as dorje. 2). The Bell, known in Sanskrit as the Ghanta, and in Tibetan as dril bu. 3). The Phurpa (Ritual Dagger) 4). The Skull Cup, known as kapala in Sanskrit. 5). The Curved Knife or Chopper. The Vajra The Vajra is the quintessential symbol of Vajrayana Buddhism, which derives its name from the vajra itself. The Sanskrit term vajra means 'the hard or mighty one', and its Tibetan equivalent dorje means an indestructible hardness and brilliance like the diamond, which cannot be cut or broken. The vajra essentially symbolizes the impenetrable, immovable, immutable, indivisible, and indestructible state of enlightenment or Buddhahood. The form of the vajra as a scepter or a weapon appears to have its origin in the single or double trident, which arose as a symbol of the thunderbolt or lightning in many ancient civilizations of the Near and Middle East. Parallels are postulated with the meteoric hammer of the Teutonic sky-god Thor, the thunderbolt and scepter of the Greek sky-god Zeus, and the three thunderbolts of the Roman god Jupiter. As a hurled weapon the indestructible thunderbolt blazed like a meteoric fireball across the heavens, in a maelstrom of thunder, fire and lightning. In ancient India, the vajra, as a thunderbolt, became the chief weapon of the Vedic sky-god Indra. It controlled the forces of thunder and lightning, breaking open the monsoon storm clouds, bringing the welcome rains to the parched plains of an Indian summer. According to legend, Indra's thunderbolt was fashioned from the bones of the great Rishi Dadhichi, who was decapitated by Indra in sacrifice. Dadhichi's 'indestructible' skull-bones gave Indra the most powerful of weapons, by the energy of which he slew innumerable of his enemy demons. In mythological descriptions, Indra's thunderbolt or vajra is shaped either like a circular discus with a hole at its center, or in the form of a cross with transverse bladed bars. The Rigveda, the most ancient text in the world, identifies the vajra as a notched metal club with a thousand prongs. What is significant is that all these descriptions identify the vajra as having open prongs, unlike the Buddhist one, which has closed prongs. According to a Buddhist legend, Shakyamuni took the vajra weapon from Indra and forced its wrathful open prongs together, thus forming a peaceful Buddhist scepter with closed prongs. The Buddhist vajra hence absorbed the unbreakable and indestructible power of the thunderbolt. The Buddhist vajra may be represented with one to nine prongs. It is designed with a central shaft that is pointed at each end. The middle section consists of two lotuses from which may spring, at each end, for example, six prongs of the dorje. Together with the projecting and pointed central shaft, each end thus becomes seven pronged. The outside six prongs face inwards towards the central prong. Each of these outside prongs arise from the heads of makaras (mythical crocodiles), which face outwards. The mouths of the makaras are wide open and the prongs emanate from the mouth like tongues of flame. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/sculptures/ZI03 (Size 52 kb) The vajra is generally two-sided but the vishvavajra or the double thunderbolt has four heads representing the four dhyani Buddhas of the four directions namely, Amoghasiddhi for north, Akshobhya, who presides over the east, Ratnasambhava, lord of the south, and Amitabha who reigns over the west. It is the emblem of the crossed vajra that is inscribed upon the metal base that is used to seal deity statues after they have been consecrated. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/sculptures/ZH19 (Size 53 kb) The vajra is indeed the most important ritual implement and symbol of Vajrayana Buddhism. It is so important that many of the Vajrayana deities have the word vajra prefixed to their names, two of them being Vajradhara and Vajrasattva. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/sculptures/ZN02 (Size 82 kb) When used in ritual, the vajra is paired with the bell. It represents the masculine principle and is held in the right hand, and the bell, held in the left hand, represents the female principle. More on this follows. The Bell The bell is the most common and indispensable musical instrument in tantric Buddhist ritual. Gods and apotheosized lamas alike hold this popular symbol, along with the thunderbolt in their hands. The bell has an elemental function and its sound, like those made by the trumpet and the drum, is regarded as auspicious; it is said to drive away evil spirits. Like the church bell, the Buddhist hand bell sends the message to evil spirits that they must stay away from the consecrated area where the ritual is being performed. As already mentioned, in ritual the bell is paired with the vajra. The vajra represents the compassion of the Buddha, the masculine principle; and the bell represents wisdom, the female principle. To achieve enlightenment, those two principles must be combined. The bell is visualized as the Buddha's body, the vajra is visualized as his mind, and the sound of the bell is visualized as Buddha's speech in teaching of the dharma. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/sculptures/ZF16 (Size 35 kb) The use of the bell and vajra differs according to the ritual performed or the sadhana chanted. The vajra can be used for visualization or evocation of deities; ringing the bell can be used to request protection or other actions from a deity, or it can represent the teaching of dharma, and can also be a sound offering. As one example of their use, during meditation on the deity Vajrasattva, the vajra is placed on the chest of the practitioner, meaning that Vajrasattva is brought to the meditator, and they become one and inseparable. Ringing the bell then represents the sound of Buddha teaching the dharma and symbolizes the attainment of wisdom and the understanding of emptiness. While chanting, the vajra is held in the right hand, which faces down, and the bell is held in the left hand, which usually faces up, and they are moved in graceful gestures. Sometimes the hands are held with the wrists crossed over each other, against the chest. This represents the union of the male and female principles. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/sculptures/ZI65 (Size 55 kb) The Phurpa A phurpa, sometimes called a "magic dagger", is a tantric ritual object used to conquer evil spirits and to destroy obstacles. It is utilized in magic rituals by high level tantric practitioners. The word phurpa is used primarily in Central Tibet, while the word phurbu is used more often in Kham, Amdo and Ladakh. The component phur in the word phurpa is a Tibetan rendering of the Sanskrit word kila, meaning peg or nail. The phurpa is an implement that nails down as well as binds. It was thus by stabbing a phurpa into the earth, and thereby nailing and binding the evil spirits, that Padmasambhava, regarded as the inventor of this implement, consecrated the ground on which the Samye monastery was established in the eighth century. Whatever the original shape of the Indian kila may have been (none has survived), it seems very likely that in Tibet the form of the phurpa, with its three-sided blade, was suggested by the pegs that were driven into the earth to hold the rope stays of the tent. Due to the essentially nomadic nature of life in ancient Tibet, the tent was an important part of their routine. While traveling it was used by all, the peasants, the traders, the royalty, nobility and even the exalted monks. Indeed, the peg of the tent is the prototype of the phurpa. Its triple blade is really not a dagger but a peg, precisely the kind of peg used to secure tents. The triple blade of the phurpa symbolizes the overcoming or cutting through of the three root poisons of ignorance, desire, and hatred, and also represents control over the three times of past, present and future. The triangular shape represents the element of fire and symbolizes wrathful activity. The tenacious grip of the makara-head at the top of the blade represents its ferocious activity. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/sculptures/ZI63 (Size 32 kb) When using the phurpa, the practitioner first meditates, then recites the sadhana of the phurpa, and then invites the deity to enter the phurpa. As he does so, the practitioner visualizes that he is frightening and conquering the evil spirits by placing the evil under the point of the phurpa. Or sometimes the practitioner visualizes throwing the phurpa in order to impale and subdue the spirits. The success will depend on the practitioner's spirituality, concentration, motivation, and his karmic connections with the deity of the phurpa and the evil spirits. The Skull Cup The skull cup, known as kapala in Sanskrit, is fashioned from the oval upper section of a human cranium. It serves as a libation vessel for a vast number of Vajrayana deities, mostly wrathful. As a ritual implement, the selection of the right skull is of immense importance for the success of the ritual. The skull of a murder or execution victim is believed to possess the greatest tantric power; the skull of one who has died from a violent or accidental death, or from a virulent illness, possesses a medium magical power; the skull of a person who died peacefully in old age has virtually no occult power. The skull of a child who died during the onset of puberty also has great potency, as do the skulls of miscegenated or misbegotten child of unknown paternity, born from the forbidden union of castes, out of wedlock, from sexual misdemeanor, or particularly from incest. The 'misbegotten skull' of a seven or eight-year-old child born from an incestuous union is considered to possess the greatest power in certain tantric rituals. Here the vital force or potential of the skull's 'previous owner' is embodied within the bone as a spirit, rendering it as an effective power object for the performance of tantric rituals. As the libation vessel of the Vajrayana practitioner, the skull cup essentially parallels the clay pot (kumbha in Sanskrit) of the Vedic sacrifice, the alms bowl of the Buddha, and the sacred water vase (Kalasha in Sanskrit) of the bodhisattvas. As a receptacle for sacrificial offerings presented to wrathful deities, it parallels the precious tray containing auspicious substances-the jewels, flowers, or fruit presented to peaceful deities. In its most benign symbolism, as the begging bowl or food vessel of an ascetic, the skull cup serves as a constant reminder of death and impermanence. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/sculptures/ZG95 (Size 44 kb) In the iconography of wrathful protective deities the skull cup, held at the level of the heart, may also be paired with the curved knife or chopper which may be held above the skull cup. Here the chopper is the weapon that severs the life veins and vital organs of demonic enemies, and the cup is the oblation vessel in which the blood and organs are collected as the deity's sustenance. Descriptions of the contents of a wrathful deity's kapala include warm human blood, blood and brains, blood and intestines, human flesh and fat, the heart or the heart and lungs of an enemy, the heart of Mara and the blood of Rudra. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/sculptures/ZG28 (Size 43 kb) But it is not only the wrathful deities who hold the skull-cup. Certain other deities may hold other attributes within their skull cups. Padmasambhava, for example, holds a skull cup described as an ocean of nectar, in which floats a longevity vase. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/paintings/ZE87 (Size 95 kb) The Curved Knife or Chopper The chopper is one of the most prominent weapons used by Buddhism's angry deities, both male and female. Continuously brandished by them or simply carried in their hands, its purpose is to chop up disbelievers. This curved flaying-knife is modeled on the Indian ' knife of the butchers', used for skinning animal hides. The gibbous crescent of its blade, which terminates in a sharp point or curved hook, combines the flaying implements of a cutting-knife and scraping blade, and the piercing activity of a dagger or pulling-hook. The blade's crescent is used for cutting through flesh and scraping it clean, separating the outer and inner as 'appearance and emptiness'. The sharp hook or point of the blade is used for the more delicate acts of flaying: the initial incising of the carcass, the pulling out of veins and tendons, and cutting around the orifices of the skin. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/sculptures/ZH60 (Size 53 kb) An interesting but somewhat disturbing legend is related about the Mahakala 'protector chapel' at Samye monastery in Central Tibet. Traditionally, this forbidding chapel was kept locked for most of the year and entry into its precinct was rarely permitted. The attendant monk who supervised the chapel would each year ceremoniously replace an iron chopper and wooden chopping board which had become blunt and worn down by its nocturnal activities. Even though the chapel was locked and empty, at night the screams of the ethereal miscreants hacked under Mahakala's chopper could be clearly heard from outside the chapel. In Mahakala's symbolism the curved knife cuts through the life veins of enemies such as oath-breakers and hindering spirits; and his skull cup is filled with the heart-blood of these enemies. This crescent shaped chopper, held by deities such as Mahakala, corresponds in shape to the cavity of the skull cup and functions to make 'mincemeat' of the hearts, intestines, lungs, and life-veins of enemies hostile to the dharma, which are then collected in the skull cup. As mentioned, a similar crescent shaped hand cleaver is used in oriental cuisine to chop meat and dice vegetables. Illustration : http://www.exoticindiaart.com/paintings/ZE65 (Size 111 kb) Just as the thunderbolt is typically paired with the bell, so do the chopper and skull cup generally accompany each other. The symbolism of the two pairs may be the same. Since the chopper is the instrument for cutting through the fog of ignorance, it represents method, the masculine principle, while the cup symbolizes wisdom, the feminine principle. In many ways, the chopper serves the same purpose as the dorje or the phurpa and is employed in rituals of exorcism by priests and shamans. Broadly speaking, the category of ritual objects in Tibetan religion includes nearly all objects that serve a religious function. The extensive variety and uses of ritual objects should be noted as one of the defining elements of Tibetan art, for no other culture has generated so wide a range of such implements. The great breadth also holds true for the materials they are made from. These include various metal alloys, precious metals, especially silver, jewels, wood, sculpted butter, and even human bones and ashes, taking the ritual well beyond the usual range of materials familiar among most religious traditions. Most ritual objects are used in temples by initiated lamas who alone have the right and duty to perform the various rituals. In this and in many other ways the customs are not different from those of Judaism and Christianity, in which the rabbi or priest performs most acts of worship. Aesthetically appealing and visually resplendent, Tibetan ritual implements are indeed fascinating, as much for their exquisite craftsmanship as for their rich forms and symbolism.
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